Solar-powered energy-autonomous silicon-on-insulator device

ABSTRACT

A solar-powered autonomous CMOS circuit structure is fabricated with monolithically integrated photovoltaic solar cells. The structure includes a device layer including an integrated circuit and a solar cell layer. Solar cell structures in the solar cell layer can be series connected during metallization of the device layer or subsequently. The device layer and the solar cell layer are formed using a silicon-on-insulator substrate. Subsequent spalling of the silicon-on-insulator substrate through the handle substrate thereof facilitates production of a relatively thin solar cell layer that can be subjected to a selective etching process to isolate the solar cell structures.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.13/717,684, which in turn claims the benefit of U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 61/617,846. The complete disclosures of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 13/717,684 and U.S. Provisional Application No.61/617,846 are expressly incorporated by reference herein in theirentireties for all purposes.

FIELD

The field of the present disclosure relates to the physical andelectrical sciences, and particularly to silicon-on-insulator (SOI)complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) devices and integratedcircuits including such devices.

BACKGROUND

There is a demand for energy-autonomous ‘smart’ sensors and integratedcircuits utilizing energy harvesting schemes. Prominent examples includesensor network nodes, biomedical implants and wearable devices, andburst-mode wireless transceivers. Recent advances in nanoelectronicsallow monolithic integration of ‘smart’ sensors with self-containedsensing, computation, communication and power source to obtainreasonably small sensors. Many sensor applications will require totalpower as low as 100 μW when using advanced low-power circuits.

The voltage output of a stand-one silicon-based solar cell is typicallynot sufficient to drive a high-performance transistor. As a result, thetransistor will operate near or at the sub-threshold regime. Large areaCMOS diodes can be used as photovoltaic components for harnessing fringelight and powering a chip, but such diodes inhibit the use of advancedCMOS technology.

SUMMARY

Aspects of the present disclosure relate to solar-powered structures andmethods for fabricating such structures.

A first exemplary method includes obtaining a silicon-on-insulatorsubstrate including a semiconductor layer, a handle substrate, and aninsulating layer between the semiconductor layer and handle substrate,the silicon-on-insulator substrate including a plurality of solar cellstructures. A device layer comprising an integrated circuit is formed onthe semiconductor layer of the silicon-on-insulator substrate. Themethod further includes connecting the solar cell structures in series,attaching a stressor layer to the silicon-on-insulator substrate overthe device layer, attaching a flexible handle layer to the stressorlayer, cleaving through the handle substrate by exerting a force on theflexible handle layer, separating a cleaved portion of the handlesubstrate from the handle substrate, leaving a thin handle layerattached to the device layer and comprising the plurality of solar cellstructures, and removing a selected portion of the thin handle layer,thereby electrically isolating the solar cell structures from eachother.

A second exemplary method includes obtaining a structure including i) asilicon-on-insulator substrate comprising a handle substrate, asemiconductor layer, an insulating layer between the handle substrateand semiconductor layer, and a plurality of solar cell structuresconnected in series with each other, ii) a device layer comprising anintegrated circuit on the semiconductor layer of the substrate, iii) astressor layer secured to the structure above the device layer, and iv)a flexible handle layer secured to the stressor layer. The methodfurther includes cleaving through the handle substrate of thesilicon-on-insulator substrate by exerting a force on the flexiblehandle layer, separating a cleaved portion of the handle substratebeneath the fracture from the substrate, leaving a thin handle layercomprising the plurality of solar cell structures attached to the devicelayer, and removing a selected portion of the thin handle layer, therebyelectrically isolating the solar cell structures from each other.

A method in accordance with a third aspect includes obtaining asilicon-on-insulator substrate including a semiconductor layer, a handlesubstrate, and an insulating layer between the semiconductor layer andhandle substrate, the silicon-on-insulator substrate including a firsthighly doped contact region having a first doping type adjoining theinsulating layer, forming a device layer comprising an integratedcircuit on the semiconductor layer of the silicon-on-insulatorsubstrate, attaching a stressor layer to the silicon-on-insulatorsubstrate over the device layer and attaching a flexible handle layer tothe stressor layer. The method further includes cleaving through thehandle substrate by exerting a force on the flexible handle layer,separating a cleaved portion of the handle substrate from the substrate,leaving a thin handle layer attached to the device layer and comprisingthe first highly doped contact region adjoining the insulating regionand an exposed surface, forming a second highly doped contact region onthe exposed surface of the thin handle layer, the second highly dopedcontact region having a second doping type opposite to the first dopingtype, forming first and second isolated solar cell structures from thethin handle layer and the first and second highly doped contact regions,and connecting the solar cell structures in series.

An exemplary structure includes a silicon-on-insulator substrateincluding a semiconductor layer, a handle layer having a thickness offifty microns or less, and an insulating layer between the semiconductorlayer and handle layer, the handle layer including a plurality ofelectrically isolated solar cell structures. A device layer comprisingan integrated circuit is on the semiconductor layer of thesilicon-on-insulator substrate. At least two of the solar cellstructures are electrically connected in series. An electricalconnection is provided between the series connected solar cellstructures and the integrated circuit.

A second exemplary structure includes a silicon-on-insulator substrateincluding a semiconductor layer, a handle layer, and an insulating layerbetween the semiconductor layer and handle layer. The handle layerincludes a photosensitive base portion, a plurality of highly dopedfirst contact regions adjoining the insulating layer, and a plurality ofhighly doped second contact regions adjoining the insulating layer, thefirst contact regions having a doping type opposite to the doping typeof the second contact regions. A device layer comprising a complementarymetal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) circuit is on the semiconductor layerof the silicon-on-insulator substrate; a stressor layer is attached tothe device layer and a flexible handle layer is attached to the stressorlayer.

As used herein, “facilitating” an action includes performing the action,making the action easier, helping to carry the action out, or causingthe action to be performed. Thus, by way of example and not limitation,instructions executing on one processor might facilitate an actioncarried out by instructions executing on a remote processor, by sendingappropriate data or commands to cause or aid the action to be performed.For the avoidance of doubt, where an actor facilitates an action byother than performing the action, the action is nevertheless performedby some entity or combination of entities.

Substantial beneficial technical effects are provided by the exemplarystructures and methods disclosed herein. For example, one or moreembodiments may provide one or more of the following advantages:

-   -   Enables monolithic integration of solar cell structures;    -   Optional circuit mechanical flexibility;    -   Facilitates isolation process and serial connection of        individual solar cell structures to increase the output voltage.

These and other features and advantages of the present disclosure willbecome apparent from the following detailed description of illustrativeembodiments thereof, which is to be read in connection with theaccompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-D show a flow diagram showing the processing of a structure toobtain isolated solar cell structures that are connected in series;

FIG. 2A is a schematic illustration of a structure having seriesconnected solar cell structures in accordance with a first exemplaryembodiment;

FIG. 2B is a top plan view of solar cell mesas formed in accordance witha first exemplary embodiment of the structure of FIG. 2A;

FIG. 2C is a top plan view of solar cell mesas formed in accordance witha second exemplary structure of FIG. 2A;

FIG. 3 is a schematic illustration of a structure having seriesconnected solar cell structures in accordance with a second exemplaryembodiment, and

FIG. 4 is a schematic illustration of a structure having seriesconnected solar cell structures in accordance with a third exemplaryembodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The voltage output of a stand-alone silicon-based solar cell istypically not sufficient to drive a high-performance transistor. As aresult, the transistor will operate near or at the sub-threshold regime.A monolithic integration of solar cells is fabricated on a handlesubstrate in accordance with aspects of the present disclosure. Theprocess is facilitated by using controlled spalling technology such asdisclosed in Pub. Nos. U.S. 2010/0307572 and U.S. 2011/0048517, whichare incorporated by reference herein. Structures are obtained havingmonolithically integrated solar cells on a silicon handle layer that areconnected in series to increase voltage output of the photovoltaiccomponent. In other words, solar cells are monolithically integrated onthe handle layer and then the diodes comprising the solar cells arecascaded in series to add the output voltage of each diode. The use of arelatively thick handle layer in the disclosed method ensures sufficientmechanical support during device processing. The controlled spallingtechnique allows separating a thin handle layer of the handle substrate(from a few microns to tens of microns) of a silicon-on-insulatorstructure. The resulting, relatively thin handle layer allows properelectrical isolation and serial connection of individual solar cells.

In an exemplary embodiment, three technologies are utilized to enablethe monolithic integration of solar cells with integrated circuits(ICs): (i) Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technology for CMOS ICs, (ii) Sisolar cell technology implemented in the handle Si of the SOI substrate,and (iii) controlled spalling technology for kerf-free silicon release.Typical conversion efficiency of a high-end silicon-based solar cell isabout 20%, i.e., about 200 μW/mm². This power should be sufficient toenergize smart sensors made with state-of the-art low-power CMOStechnology. In order to avoid using up the prime silicon “real-estate”on the IC chip itself for fabricating solar cells, an exemplary methodas disclosed herein provides monolithic integration of high efficiencysolar cells in the handle Si of a SOI substrate under the insulating(e.g. buried oxide (BOX)) layer. The handle Si typically acts only as amechanical support for SOI devices and contains no active devices.Therefore, the integration scheme being proposed here will have noeffect on the prime real estate in the SOI layer.

In an energy-autonomous circuit, one possible paradigm is to harness thesolar cell generated power for re-charging a battery. This will requirean energy scavenger that produces voltage greater than that of thebattery. Since the output voltage of a stand-alone Si solar cell islimited to 0.5-0.8 V which is much smaller than the required batteryvoltage (>1.5 V), multiplication of the solar cell output voltage isnecessary for charging the battery. Although there are proposedcircuit-level solutions such as voltage adder/multiplication circuits,such circuits require additional power for operation. Additionally, thisapproach may take up prime Si real-estate on the chip.

In accordance with the present disclosure, monolithic integration ofsolar cells is performed in the handle substrate and cascading of thesolar cells is done in series to increase the output voltage of theenergy scavenger. The thick handle substrate (typically >700 μm) usedfor typical CMOS processing inhibits realization of such an approach. Tosurmount this challenge, controlled spalling technology, such asdescribed with respect to FIGS. 1A-B, is employed to release the top1-50 μm (typically 20-50 μm) of the Si handle substrate. The resultingstructure will include the SOI layer with IC circuitry, BOX layer, and aportion of the handle substrate under the BOX layer (FIG. 2C). Therelatively thin handle substrate obtained after spalling will facilitatesubsequent isolation process and serial connection of individual solarcells via the back of the wafer.

Referring to FIGS. 1A-D, a flow chart illustrating steps of amanufacturing method is shown. FIG. 1A shows a structure 20 obtainedfollowing initial steps as described in part above. The structure 20includes a SOI substrate comprised of a relatively thick handlesubstrate 22 comprising silicon in one or more embodiments, aninsulating layer 24 (a buried oxide layer such as silicon dioxide inthis exemplary embodiment), and a semiconductor layer. The semiconductorlayer is comprised of crystalline silicon and is not shown as a separateelement in FIG. 1A. The structure further includes a device layer 26formed on the top semiconductor layer of the SOI substrate. The devicelayer in this embodiment comprises one or more CMOS devices (e.g. fieldeffect transistors, bipolar junction transistors, non-volatile memorycells, etc). It is understood that CMOS devices do not necessarilycomprise metals or oxides, and that doped conductors and insulatorsother than oxides may comprise such devices. A stressor layer 28,preferably comprising a thin metal layer (e.g. a few microns of nickel)is formed on the device layer. A flexible handle layer 30 made frompolyimide or other suitable material is bonded to the stressor layer 28.It will be appreciated that the stressor layer may be deposited directlyon the device layer as shown or indirectly. An intermediate layer (notshown) may optionally be provided between the device layer and stressorlayer.

In an exemplary SOI substrate, a buried oxide (BOX) film comprisingsilicon dioxide may be formed on a silicon substrate and a singlecrystal silicon thin film is formed thereon. Various methods offabricating such SOI substrates are known, one of which isSeparation-by-Implanted Oxygen (SIMOX), wherein oxygen is ion implantedinto a single crystal silicon substrate to form a BOX film. Anothermethod of forming an SOI substrate is wafer bonding, wherein twosemiconductor substrates with silicon oxide surface layers are bondedtogether at the silicon oxide surfaces to form a BOX layer between thetwo semiconductor substrates. SOI substrates are also commerciallyavailable. The handle substrate 22 of a SOI substrate is thick (forexample, greater than seven hundred microns in thickness) to facilitateCMOS processing. The thickness of the top semiconductor layer depends onthe circuitry to be formed thereon. Typical top semiconductor thicknesscan range from three nanometers (3 nm) to two microns (2 μm).

One or more doped regions can be formed in the handle substrate 22during manufacture of the SOI substrate or thereafter. For example, aheavily doped region can be grown epitaxially on a lightly doped siliconsubstrate. Depending on the doping type, the heavily doped region canfunction as an emitter or a back surface field (BSF) layer.Alternatively, the entire solar cell structure, comprising of theemitter, absorber layer and the back/front surface field can beepitaxially grown on the handle substrate. Ion implantation is anotherdoping method familiar to those of skill in the art that can beemployed. As discussed above, heavily doped solar cell anode and cathodeterminals can be formed under the BOX layer at the outset of theformation of the CMOS device layer on the top semiconductor layer. Theformation of CMOS devices on SOI substrates is familiar to those ofskill in the art. The device layer may include any appropriate number,type and configuration of CMOS devices. The device layers shown anddescribed hereafter should be considered exemplary as opposed tolimiting.

Referring to FIG. 1B, shear stress is applied by means of the flexiblehandle structure 30 to spall a layer of the host handle substrate 22.Controlled spalling as shown herein is performed to cleave through thehandle substrate 22 beneath the BOX layer 24. A relatively thin handlelayer 22A as shown in FIG. 1C will accordingly remain on the structurefollowing spalling. The thin handle layer 22A preferably has a thicknessof one to fifty microns (1-50 μm) in the exemplary embodiment. Thespalling procedure is conducted after finishing circuit processing insome embodiments. In other words, the host handle substrate is spalledfollowing both solar cell formation and device layer formation in someembodiments. As discussed further below, additional steps may followspalling to complete the formation of solar cell structures in otherembodiments. US Pub. No. 2010/0311250, which is incorporated byreference herein, further discusses thin substrate fabrication whereincontrolled spalling techniques are employed.

As shown in FIG. 1C, the bottom surface 22B of the handle layer 22A ofthe resulting structure 40 may be optionally textured to improve lighttrapping. The texturing is greatly exaggerated in the Figure. Referringto FIG. 1D, a mesa patterning is performed by Si selective etching downto the BOX layer 24. In embodiments where solar cell structures havealready been formed in the structure 40, the selective etching isolatesthe solar cell structures from each other. Cascading of the solar cellstructures is accordingly feasible. In embodiments where furtherprocessing is necessary to complete the solar cell structures, theselective etching facilitates isolation of the solar cell structuresonce completed so that they can be operated in series to increase thevoltage output.

A first exemplary embodiment of a solar-powered autonomous CMOS circuitwith monolithically integrated solar cell structures is shown inschematic form in FIGS. 2A and 2B. The exemplary integrated circuit 50includes a device layer 52 on a SOI substrate 54. The device layer 52may form the device layer 26 discussed above with respect to FIGS. 1A-D.The SOI substrate 54 includes a relatively thin handle layer 56 in thisembodiment which, as discussed above, is formed by cleaving through therelatively thick handle substrate on which the device layer 52 wasformed followed by etching of the handle layer 56 to effect solar cellstructure isolation The handle layer 56 in this embodiment is lightlydoped, as indicated by the designation p− (or alternatively (n−) in theFigure. Oppositely and highly doped regions 58, 60, which can functionas solar cell anode and cathode terminals, are formed in the handlelayer and adjoin the insulating (BOX) layer. Some of the regions 58 aren+ (alternatively (p+)) and the others 60 are doped p+ (alternatively(n+)). In accordance with an exemplary method of fabrication, theseregions 58, 60 are formed prior to spalling and etching of the handlelayer. An antireflective coating 62 (ARC layer) is formed on the handlelayer 56. The antireflective coating can further function as apassivation layer. A passivation layer (not shown) preferably covers theinner surfaces of the handle layer, not only the bottom surface.

The etching of the silicon handle layer 56 down to the insulating (BOX)layer 64, such as described above with respect to FIG. 1D, formschannels 66 within the layer. In the embodiment of FIGS. 2A and 2B, thechannels 66 electrically isolate series connected solar cell structures68A, 68B and other adjacent solar cells (not shown) that were formedprior to spalling and electrical isolation. It will be appreciated aplurality of such channels can be formed to electrically isolateadditional sets of series connected solar cell structures during largerscale fabrication, such as shown in FIG. 2B. Such mesa isolation doesnot affect the electrical series connections of the solar cellstructures.

The device layer 52 in this exemplary embodiment is a CMOS device layerincluding n-channel and p-channel FET devices. The layer includes afirst FET device including doped source and drain regions 70A, 70B, agate 72A, and a channel region 74A. It further includes a second FETdevice including doped source and drain regions 70C, 70C, a gate 72B,and a channel region 74B. Nitride spacers 76 adjoin the gates 72A, 72Bin the exemplary embodiment. A first contact 78 (V_(in)) is formed atthe top surface of the device layer 52. This contact 78 provides a gatevoltage to the FET gates 72A, 72B. A second contact 80 is connected toground, the source/drain region 70A of one of the FET devices, and ahighly doped region 58 in the silicon handle layer 56. A third contact82 (V_(out))is connected between source and drain regions 70B, 70C ofadjacent FET devices. A fourth contact 84 (V_(dd)) is connected to thehighly doped contact region 60 of the second solar cell structure 68B bya via and to the source/drain region 70D of the second FET device. Afifth contact 86 is connected by conductive vias (for example, copper)to the first and second solar cell structures 68A, 68B, one of the viascontacting the highly doped p+ region 60 if the first solar cellstructure, the other of the vias contacting the highly doped n+ region58 of the second solar cell structure. A serial connection of theotherwise electrically isolated solar cell structures is accordinglyprovided. The series connection in this exemplary embodiment is effectedduring fabrication of the device layer. The output voltage of the secondsolar cell structure is added to that of the first solar cell structurein the exemplary circuit 50. Channels for the vias can be formed throughreactive ion etching, a process that is familiar to those of skill inthe art. The etch chemistry can be selective wherein the n+ and/or p+doped regions function as etch stops or non-selective wherein the endpoint is determined by time etch or monitoring the byproduct of the etchprocess.

It will be appreciated that the thin Si handle layer 56 obtained afterspalling offers fabrication advantages such as (i) formation of solarcell anode and cathode terminals (highly doped regions 58, 60)underneath the BOX layer 64 at the outset of the CMOS process (from thefront surface by ion implantation through the box layer), (ii)electrical connection of solar cells during the back end of the line(BEOL) CMOS processing, (iii) electrical isolation of solar cellstructures in an efficient manner. It will further be furtherappreciated that the doped contact regions can be formed as continuousstructures, such as the regions 58, 60 shown in FIG. 2B, or as locallyisolated regions. Locally isolated n+ and p+ contact regions 58′, 60′are shown in the schematic top plan view showing solar cell mesas thatcan be employed to power a device layer 52 as shown in FIG. 2A.

A second embodiment of a solar-powered autonomous CMOS circuit 100 withmonolithically integrated, serially connected photovoltaic solar cellstructures is shown in the schematic illustration provided in FIG. 3.The circuit 100 shares a number of elements common to those in thecircuit 50 described above with respect to FIG. 2A. Such elements aredesignated by the same reference numerals. The device layer 102 issubstantially the same as the device layer 52 described above, but doesnot include the contact 86 and its associated vias. The thin handlelayer 106 obtained after spalling includes a plurality of solar cellstructures, two of which are shown in the Figure. Each includes a highlydoped emitter region 110 that adjoins the insulating layer 64. Theemitter region can be epitaxially grown during SOI substratefabrication. Alternatively, the emitter region can be formed via ionimplantation following SOI substrate fabrication and prior to formingthe device layer 102 on the SOI substrate. A front surface field layer112 adjoins the bottom surface of the lightly doped handle layer 106.The front surface field layer is formed following spalling of therelatively thick handle substrate to separate the thin handle layer 106and device layer 102 therefrom as described above with respect to FIG.1B. The front surface field layer can be grown epitaxially or as anamorphous layer(s). Once the device layer 102 is formed, the temperatureof further fabrication processes (e.g. CVD) should not exceed 500° C. toavoid damaging the CMOS circuit therein. It will be appreciated that thefront surface field layer 112 formed on the thin handle layer can besingle or multi-layer and that the doping thereof can be substantiallyuniform or graded. Exemplary front surface fields may comprise lowtemperature, highly doped epitaxial silicon, a stack of hydrogenatedamorphous silicon (intrinsic and doped), or a combination thereof.Selective etching of the thin handle layer 106 to the insulating layer64, as discussed above with respect to FIG. 1D, is conducted to separatethe emitter layer formed on the SOI substrate into two emitter layers,thereby forming two solar cell structures. It will be appreciated thatthe patterning comprises two steps in this exemplary embodiment. Onestep includes mesa isolation all the way down to the BOX layer 64. Thesecond step entails mesa isolation down to the heavily doped region 110.The front surface field is formed prior to the solar cell isolationprocess. Unlike the formation of the circuit 50 discussed with respectto FIG. 2A, series connection of the solar cell structures in thecircuit 100 is effected following device layer formation, spalling, andsolar cell structure isolation. A bottom contact and associated via 114electrically connects the front surface field layer of the first solarcell structure with the emitter layer 110 of the second solar cellstructure. The photovoltaic output of the two solar cell structures inthe thin handle layer is accordingly added. A dielectric material 116(e.g. SiO₂, SiN_(x), metal oxide dielectrics such as Al₂O₃ orHfO₂)surrounds the via. The anti-reflective coating layer 62 can bedeposited prior to or after solar cell structure isolation so long as itis not made from a conductive material. If made of a conductive materialsuch as a transparent conductive oxide (TCO), it would be depositedafter the formation of the front surface field and prior to solar cellstructure isolation.

A third embodiment of an autonomous CMOS circuit 200 having integratedsolar cell structures is shown in the schematic illustration provided inFIG. 4. The device layer is identical to that shown in FIG. 3 andaccordingly has been assigned the same reference numeral 102. The thinhandle layer 206 is similar to the handle layer 106 shown in FIG. 3,though the positions of the highly doped regions are reversed. A backsurface field (BSF) layer 212 is formed in the thin handle layer justbeneath the insulating layer 64. An emitter layer 110 is formed on thesurface of the thin handle layer 206 that is exposed following cleavagefrom the relatively thick SOI substrate on which the device layer 102was formed. Exemplary emitter layers may comprise low temperature,highly doped epitaxial silicon, a stack of hydrogenated amorphoussilicon (intrinsic and doped), or a combination thereof. As in thecircuit 100 described above, only one of the solar cell structurecontacts is formed prior to spalling. In the “front emitter” structureshown in FIG. 4, the BSF layer is formed prior to spalling. Seriesconnection between the two illustrated solar cell structures is effectedfollowing spalling, formation of the emitter layer, and etching achannel within the thin handle layer to form two BSF layers.

Given the discussion thus far, an exemplary structure includes asilicon-on-insulator substrate including a semiconductor layer, a handlelayer having a thickness of fifty microns or less, and an insulatinglayer between the semiconductor layer and handle layer, the handle layerincluding a plurality of electrically isolated solar cell structures.Handle layers 56, 106 and 206 comprising isolated solar cell structuresare shown, for example, in FIGS. 2A, 3 and 4, respectively. Theexemplary structure further includes a device layer comprising anintegrated circuit such as a CMOS circuit on the semiconductor layer ofthe silicon-on-insulator substrate. Such a device layer 52 is shown inFIG. 2A. Another exemplary device layer 102 is shown in FIGS. 3 and 4.It will be appreciated that the device layer may be comprised ofelements other than those shown in the figures. An integrated circuit isgenerally understood as comprising active and passive circuit elementssuch as diodes, resistors, capacitors, non-volatile memory cells, fieldeffect transistors, bipolar junction transistors, photodiodes, sensorsand/or other elements. An electrical series connection is providedbetween at least two of the solar cell structures. In the embodiment ofFIG. 2A, the series connection between the solar cell structures 68A and68B is formed partially in the device layer. In the embodiments of FIGS.3 and 4, the series connection between solar cell structures is entirelywithin the handle layer 106, 206. An electrical connection is providedbetween the series connected solar cell structures and the device layer.The contacts 80, 84 (V_(dd)) and associated vias in FIGS. 2-4 showexemplary connections. In one or more embodiments of the exemplarystructure, the electrical series connection between the at least twosolar cell structures is partially within the device layer. As discussedabove, FIG. 2 illustrates such a connection wherein the contact 86 iswithin the device layer 52 and vias electrically connected to thecontact 86 extend through the insulating layer to the solar cellstructures within the handle layer. In one or more embodiments of theexemplary structure, the semiconductor layer comprises silicon and theinsulating layer comprises a buried oxide layer. A channel is locatedbetween the series connected solar cell structures and extends throughthe handle layer to the buried oxide layer. FIG. 2A includes a schematicillustration of such a channel 66. The channel electrically isolates thesolar cell structures. In some embodiments, each of the solar cellstructures comprises first and second, oppositely doped contact regionsadjoining the insulating layer. FIG. 2A shows oppositely doped contactregions 58, 60 adjoining the insulating layer. The series connectionfurther includes first and second vias extending through the insulatinglayer in some embodiments, each via contacting one of the doped contactregions. A power supply via extends through the insulating layer, thepower supply via electrically communicating with one of the dopedcontact regions and the integrated circuit of the device layer. FIG. 2Ashows such a via connected to the contact 84. One or more exemplaryembodiments of the exemplary structure has an integrated circuit thatfurther comprises a CMOS circuit comprising n-channel and p-channel FETdevices, each of the FET devices including a gate and doped first andsecond source/drain regions operatively associated with the gate, anelectrical connection between the second source/drain region of one ofthe FET devices with the first source/drain region of a second of theFET devices, the power supply via being in electrical communication withthe second source/drain region of the second FET device. The CMOScircuit further comprises other active and passive elements (not shown)enabling various functions such as sensing, computation, and/or otherfunctions. A contact such as contact 78 electrically communicates withthe gates of the one of the FET devices and the second FET device. Ananti-reflective coating is provided on the handle layer in someembodiments. Each solar cell structure includes first and second dopedcontact regions adjoining the insulating layer in one or moreembodiments of the structure, the first and second doped contact regionshaving opposite doping types. FIG. 2A discloses a structure having suchcontact regions 58, 60. The first and second contact regions may becontinuous in some exemplary embodiments, as shown in FIG. 2B, or becomprised of locally isolated regions in other embodiments. Locallyisolated, non-continuous contact regions 58′, 60′ are shown in FIG. 2C.

An exemplary structure according to one or more embodiments discussed inthe preceding paragraph has an electrical series connection betweensolar cell structures entirely within the handle layer, such as shown inFIGS. 3 and 4. The semiconductor layer comprises silicon and theinsulating layer comprises a buried oxide layer in some embodiments ofthe structures shown in FIGS. 3 and 4. In one or more exemplaryembodiments of the structure, the solar cell structure comprises aphotosensitive base and an emitter layer 110 adjoining the insulatinglayer as shown in FIG. 3. A front surface field layer 112 adjoins asurface of the handle layer in the illustrative embodiment of FIG. 3.The emitter and/or front surface field layers of each solar cellstructure in the embodiment of FIG. 3 may be either continuous orcomprised of locally isolated regions. Solar cell structures in someembodiments comprises a first doped contact region adjoining theinsulating layer and a second doped contact region adjoining a surfaceof the handle layer, the second doped contact region having a dopingtype opposite to the doping type of the first contact region. FIGS. 3and 4 show exemplary structures. The contact region adjoining theinsulating layer comprises a back surface field layer 212 in someembodiments, such as shown in FIG. 4. A via electrically connects adoped contact region of a first solar cell structure with a first dopedcontact region of a second solar cell structure in one or moreembodiments, such as those shown in FIGS. 3 and 4. A via extendingthrough the insulating layer and electrically communicates with one ofthe doped contact regions of a solar cell structure and the integratedcircuit in exemplary embodiments of the structure. The integratedcircuit in some embodiments further comprises n-channel and p-channelFET devices, each of the FET devices including a gate and doped firstand second source/drain regions operatively associated with the gate, anelectrical connection between the second source/drain region of one ofthe FET devices with the first source/drain region of a second of theFET devices, the power supply via being in electrical communication withthe second source/drain region of the second FET device. A contactelectrically communicates with the gates of the FET devices such asshown in FIGS. 3 and 4, wherein contact 78 is electrically connected byvias to gates 72A and 72B. An anti-reflective coating is on one of thedoped contact regions in some embodiments. In the embodiment of FIG. 3,the anti-reflective coating adjoins the front surface field layer ofeach solar cell structure while in the embodiment of FIG. 4 it adjoinsthe emitter layer 110. As shown in FIG. 1C, some embodiments of theexemplary structure further include a stressor layer attached to thedevice layer and a flexible handle layer attached to the stressor layer.As discussed above, a direct attachment of the stressor layer to thedevice layer is not required. A channel extends through the handlelayer, the channel having a closed end defined by the insulating layerin the further embodiment of FIG. 1D. The channel provides electricalisolation.

A structure in accordance with a further exemplary embodiment includes asilicon-on-insulator substrate including a semiconductor layer, a handlelayer, and an insulating layer between the semiconductor layer andhandle layer. The handle layer includes a photosensitive base portion, aplurality of highly doped first contact regions adjoining the insulatinglayer, and a plurality of highly doped second contact regions adjoiningthe insulating layer, the first contact regions having a doping typeopposite to the doping type of the second contact regions. A devicelayer comprising a CMOS circuit is on the semiconductor layer of thesilicon-on-insulator substrate. A stressor layer attached to the devicelayer and a flexible handle layer is attached to the stressor layer.FIG. 1C shows an exemplary structure 40 including a flexible handlelayer 30, stressor layer 28, device layer 26 and a handle layerfollowing spalling while FIG. B shows an exemplary structure prior tospalling. Specific details of the exemplary structure are shown by wayof example in FIG. 2A, including the first and second contact regions58, 60 that adjoin the insulating layer 64. In one or more embodimentsthereof, the semiconductor layer comprises silicon and the insulatinglayer comprises a buried oxide (BOX) layer. A channel extends throughthe handle layer to the buried oxide layer, the handle layer having athickness of fifty microns or less. Channels are shown by way of examplein FIGS. 1D and 2A. The channels (e.g. channel 66) are formed afterspalling in the relatively thin (fifty microns or less) handle layer.The structure further includes an electrical series connection in one ormore embodiments between one of the first contact regions and one of thesecond contact regions, the electrical series connection extendingthrough the insulating layer and the device layer. FIG. 2A illustratessuch an electrical series connection between contact regions 58, 60. TheCMOS circuit further comprises n-channel and p-channel FET devices insome embodiments. One of the first contact regions is electricallyconnected to one of the FET devices and one of the second contactregions is electrically connected to another of the FET devices. In theillustrative embodiment of FIG. 2A, such connections are effected bycontacts 80, 84 and associated vias.

A first exemplary method includes obtaining a silicon-on-insulatorsubstrate including a semiconductor layer, a handle substrate, and aninsulating layer between the semiconductor layer and handle substrate,the silicon-on-insulator substrate including a plurality of solar cellstructures. A device layer (e.g. layer 26) comprising an integratedcircuit is formed on the semiconductor layer of the silicon-on-insulatorsubstrate. The method further includes connecting the solar cellstructures in series, for example solar cell structures 68A, 68B shownin FIG. 2A, attaching a stressor layer (e.g. layer 28) to thesilicon-on-insulator substrate over the device layer, attaching aflexible handle layer (e.g. layer 30) to the stressor layer, cleavingthrough the handle substrate by exerting a force on the flexible handlelayer, separating a cleaved portion of the handle substrate from thehandle substrate, leaving a thin handle layer such as layer 22A in FIG.1C attached to the device layer and comprising the plurality of solarcell structures, and removing a selected portion (e.g. channel 66 inFIG. 2A or the dielectric-filled channel shown in FIG. 3) of the thinhandle layer, thereby electrically isolating the solar cell structuresfrom each other. In one or more further embodiments of the method, thestep of connecting the solar cell structures in series comprisesmetalizing the device layer prior to removing the selected portion ofthe thin handle layer such that metal extends through the insulatinglayer and further such that the solar cell structures remain seriallyconnected following the step of removing the selected portion of thethin handle layer. As discussed above with respect to FIG. 2A,electrical series connection of the solar cell structures is providedduring formation of the device layer 52. Subsequent formation of thechannel 66 to electrically isolate the solar cell structures does notaffect the series connection between such structures in this embodiment.The step of obtaining the silicon-on-insulator substrate furtherincludes forming solar cell anode and cathode terminals beneath theinsulating layer prior to forming the device layer in one or moreembodiments of the method. Ion implantation through the insulating layeris one technique used form the anode and cathode terminals (contactregions) within the handle substrate, after which the device layer suchas layer 52 can be formed using conventional CMOS technology. Theplurality of solar cell structures are formed while forming thesilicon-on-insulator substrate in some embodiments of the method.

A second exemplary method includes obtaining a structure including i) asilicon-on-insulator substrate comprising a handle substrate, asemiconductor layer, an insulating layer between the handle substrateand semiconductor layer, and a plurality of solar cell structuresconnected in series with each other, ii) a device layer comprising anintegrated circuit on the semiconductor layer of the substrate, iii) astressor layer secured to the structure above the device layer, and iv)a flexible handle layer secured to the stressor layer. Such a structureis shown in FIG. 1A, with further reference to FIG. 2A for itsdisclosure of series connected solar cell structures 68A, 68B. Themethod further includes cleaving through the handle substrate of thesilicon-on-insulator substrate by exerting a force on the flexiblehandle layer, separating a cleaved portion of the handle substratebeneath the fracture from the substrate, leaving a thin handle layer(such as layer 56 in FIG. 2A) comprising the plurality of solar cellstructures attached to the device layer, and removing a selected portionof the thin handle layer, thereby electrically isolating the solar cellstructures from each other. The electrical series connection betweensolar cell structures remains following removal of the selected portionof the thin handle layer in this embodiment, such as shown in FIG. 2A,wherein formation of the channel 66 leaves the contact 86 and associatedvias intact while otherwise electrically isolating the solar cellstructures. FIGS. 2B and 2C include further details of exemplaryembodiments showing mesa isolation of series connected solar cellstructures. As discussed above with respect to FIG. 2A, solar cellstructure electrical isolation is achieved through formation of achannel 66 to the insulating layer 64. In one further exemplary aspectof the second exemplary method, the integrated circuit comprisescomplementary metal-oxide-semiconductor devices and the solar cellstructures are connected in series by a metalizing layer that extendsthrough the insulating layer from the device layer and electricallycontacts the solar cell structures. FIG. 2A illustrates such anarrangement.

A method in accordance with a third aspect includes obtaining asilicon-on-insulator substrate including a semiconductor layer, a handlesubstrate, and an insulating layer between the semiconductor layer andhandle substrate, the silicon-on-insulator substrate including a firsthighly doped contact region (such as the emitter region 110 shown inFIG. 3 or the BSF region 212 shown in FIG. 4) having a first doping typeadjoining the insulating layer, forming a device layer comprising anintegrated circuit on the semiconductor layer of thesilicon-on-insulator substrate, attaching a stressor layer to thesilicon-on-insulator substrate over the device layer and attaching aflexible handle layer to the stressor layer. The method further includescleaving through the handle substrate by exerting a force on theflexible handle layer, separating a cleaved portion of the handlesubstrate from the substrate, leaving a thin handle layer attached tothe device layer and comprising the first highly doped contact regionadjoining the insulating region and an exposed surface, forming a secondhighly doped contact region (for example, layer 112 in FIG. 3 or layer110 in FIG. 4) on the exposed surface of the thin handle layer, thesecond highly doped contact region having a second doping type oppositeto the first doping type, forming first and second electrically isolatedsolar cell structures from the thin handle layer and the first andsecond highly doped contact regions, and connecting the solar cellstructures in series. As shown in FIG. 1D, the electrically isolatedsolar cell structures may be formed by the formation of a channelextending through the handle layer to the insulating (BOX) layer.Formation of a thin handle layer of fifty microns or less facilitateschannel formation and connection of the solar cell structures in series.One or more further embodiments of the third exemplary method includeselectrically connecting the series connected solar cell structures tothe integrated circuit. Power supply vias and associated contacts areshown in the exemplary embodiments of FIGS. 3 and 4 for electricallyconnecting series-connected solar cell structures to an integratedcircuit. Such vias and contacts are formed using metalizing techniquesfamiliar to those of skill in the art.

The flowchart in the Figures illustrates the operation of possibleimplementations of systems, methods and/or computer program productsaccording to various of the embodiments present disclosure. It shouldalso be noted that, in some alternative implementations, the functionsnoted in the block may occur out of the order noted in the figures. Forexample, two blocks shown in succession may, in fact, be executedsubstantially concurrently, or the blocks may sometimes be executed inthe reverse order, depending upon the functionality involved.

The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particularembodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. Asused herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” are intended toinclude the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicatesotherwise. It will be further understood that the terms “comprises”and/or “comprising,” when used in this specification, specify thepresence of stated features, integers, steps, operations, elements,and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of oneor more other features, integers, steps, operations, elements,components, and/or groups thereof. Terms such as “top” and “bottom” areused to designate relative positions of elements as opposed toelevation. For example, the “top” surface of a structure can face up,down, or any other direction.

The corresponding structures, materials, acts, and equivalents of allmeans or step plus function elements in the claims below are intended toinclude any structure, material, or act for performing the function incombination with other claimed elements as specifically claimed. Thedescription of the present invention has been presented for purposes ofillustration and description, but is not intended to be exhaustive orlimited to the invention in the form disclosed. Many modifications andvariations will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the artwithout departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Theembodiment was chosen and described in order to best explain theprinciples of the invention and the practical application, and to enableothers of ordinary skill in the art to understand the invention forvarious embodiments with various modifications as are suited to theparticular use contemplated.

1.-6. (canceled)
 7. A method comprising: obtaining asilicon-on-insulator substrate including a semiconductor layer, a handlesubstrate, and an insulating layer between the semiconductor layer andhandle substrate, the silicon-on-insulator substrate including aplurality of solar cell structures; forming a device layer comprising anintegrated circuit on the semiconductor layer of thesilicon-on-insulator substrate; connecting the solar cell structures inseries; attaching a stressor layer to the silicon-on-insulator substrateover the device layer; attaching a flexible handle layer to the stressorlayer; cleaving through the handle substrate by exerting a force on theflexible handle layer; separating a cleaved portion of the handlesubstrate from the handle substrate, leaving a thin handle layerattached to the device layer and comprising the plurality of solar cellstructures, and removing a selected portion of the thin handle layer,thereby electrically isolating the solar cell structures from eachother; wherein the step of obtaining the silicon-on-insulator substratefurther includes forming the plurality of solar cell structures whileforming the silicon-on-insulator substrate. 8.-10. (canceled)
 11. Amethod comprising: obtaining a silicon-on-insulator substrate includinga semiconductor layer, a handle substrate, and an insulating layerbetween the semiconductor layer and handle substrate, thesilicon-on-insulator substrate including a plurality of solar cellstructures; forming a device layer comprising an integrated circuit onthe semiconductor layer of the silicon-on-insulator substrate;connecting the solar cell structures in series; attaching a stressorlayer to the silicon-on-insulator substrate over the device layer;attaching a flexible handle layer to the stressor layer; cleavingthrough the handle substrate by exerting a force on the flexible handlelayer; separating a cleaved portion of the handle substrate from thehandle substrate, leaving a thin handle layer attached to the devicelayer and comprising the plurality of solar cell structures, andremoving a selected portion of the thin handle layer, therebyelectrically isolating the solar cell structures from each other;wherein the thin handle layer formed following cleaving of the handlesubstrate has a thickness between one and fifty microns; wherein thestep of removing a selected portion of the thin handle layer toelectrically isolate the solar cell structures from each other includesetching a channel through a selected portion of the thin handle layer tothe insulating layer; and wherein the step of obtaining thesilicon-on-insulator substrate further includes forming an emitter layerwithin the handle substrate.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein thechannel extends through the emitter layer, further including forming afront surface field on the thin handle layer.
 13. A method comprising:obtaining a silicon-on-insulator substrate including a semiconductorlayer, a handle substrate, and an insulating layer between thesemiconductor layer and handle substrate, the silicon-on-insulatorsubstrate including a plurality of solar cell structures; forming adevice layer comprising an integrated circuit on the semiconductor layerof the silicon-on-insulator substrate; connecting the solar cellstructures in series; attaching a stressor layer to thesilicon-on-insulator substrate over the device layer; attaching aflexible handle layer to the stressor layer; cleaving through the handlesubstrate by exerting a force on the flexible handle layer; separating acleaved portion of the handle substrate from the handle substrate,leaving a thin handle layer attached to the device layer and comprisingthe plurality of solar cell structures, and removing a selected portionof the thin handle layer, thereby electrically isolating the solar cellstructures from each other; wherein the thin handle layer formedfollowing cleaving of the handle substrate has a thickness between oneand fifty microns; wherein the step of removing a selected portion ofthe thin handle layer to electrically isolate the solar cell structuresfrom each other includes etching a channel through a selected portion ofthe thin handle layer to the insulating layer; and wherein the step ofconnecting the solar cell structures in series comprises metalizing thethin handle layer subsequent to etching the channel through the selectedportion of the thin handle layer. 14.-19. (canceled)
 20. A methodcomprising: obtaining a silicon-on-insulator substrate including asemiconductor layer, a handle substrate, and an insulating layer betweenthe semiconductor layer and handle substrate, the silicon-on-insulatorsubstrate including a first highly doped contact region having a firstdoping type adjoining the insulating layer; forming a device layercomprising an integrated circuit on the semiconductor layer of thesilicon-on-insulator substrate; attaching a stressor layer to thesilicon-on-insulator substrate over the device layer; attaching aflexible handle layer to the stressor layer; cleaving through the handlesubstrate by exerting a force on the flexible handle layer; separating acleaved portion of the handle substrate from the substrate, leaving athin handle layer attached to the device layer and comprising the firsthighly doped contact region adjoining the insulating region and anexposed surface; forming a second highly doped contact region on theexposed surface of the thin handle layer, the second highly dopedcontact region having a second doping type opposite to the first dopingtype; forming first and second electrically isolated solar cellstructures from the thin handle layer and the first and second highlydoped contact regions, and connecting the solar cell structures inseries.
 21. The method of claim 20, wherein the integrated circuitcomprises complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor devices, furthercomprising electrically connecting the series connected solar cellstructures to the integrated circuit.
 22. The method of claim 20,wherein the step of forming the first and second isolated solar cellstructures includes etching a channel through the thin handle layer,including the first contact region, down to the insulating layer. 23.The method of claim 22, wherein the first contact region comprises aback surface field layer.
 24. The method of claim 22, wherein the firstcontact region comprises an emitter layer.
 25. The method of claim 22,wherein the insulating layer is a buried oxide layer and the thin handlelayer has a thickness of fifty microns or less.